Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones)

Obstruction of the flow of urine causes urine stasis, which carries an increased risk of infection and structural damage. Causes of obstruction include:

• Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones).
• Tumors.
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia.
• Strictures of urethra or ureter.

Nephrolithiasis specifically are aggregates of organic and inorganic matter (often calcium oxalate). Risk factors include:

• Supersaturation of urine (required).
• Low urine volume (dehydration, hot environment).
• Abnormal blood pH.
• Excess intake of animal protein or oxalate-rich food (spinach).
• Hypercalcemia.
• Urinary tract infection.

Sign and symptoms of stone migration include:

• Intense pain (10/10).
• Nausea + vomiting.
• Diaphoresis.
• Hematuria.